Published Paper Details:

In this article an attempt has been to find out the duties and disabilities of ??dra in ancient India. The life of ??dra in ancient India was very iserable. He was considered the fourth var?a. He was the servant of twice-born classes and may engage in agriculture, rearing cattle, carrying loads, sale of commodities, drawing, painting, dancing, singing and playing on musical instruments. He lives on the mercy of upper var?as. He had not allowed to study the Veda. He was not to consecrate sacred fires and to perform the solemn Vedic sacrifices. He was not debarred from hearing itih?sa (like the Mah?bh?rata) and the Pura?as. He was considered impure. He was not owner of anything. The sm?tis did not like that wealth should be accumulated in the hands of the ??dra. If he committed any mistake by chance, then his punishment was very hard. He was not appointed as judge. According to sage Manu when the king does not himself look into the litigation of people owing to pressure of other business, he should appoint a learned br?hma?a as a judge, but never a ??dra. A br?hma?a was not allowed to receive gifts from a ??dra except under great restriction. He was compelled to undergo no sa?ask?ra (except marriage). His life in ancient India was very miserable because he was deprived from everything. I think this article would be very helpful for the government policy makers to make the policy for the ??dra var?a to uplift.